Well, it's been a pretty hectic week. I've thrown myself into Russia 1855-1917 and have already completed the first block of the unit topic (1855-81)
Aside from anything else, it's been the most fun I've had for ages with this kind of thing - no writers' block, no 'how do i start or conclude this?', just engaging with the material and looking for connections. I've also let grammar slip in places in my excitement and not bothering to proof read stuff (which I always hate doing in the day-job anyway)
No one has marked any of this stuff yet, so I may be talking/writing rubbish, but hopefully I'm not. The plan is still to work through the topic as soon as I can and then supplement my notes with background reading and then try and do as many past papers as I can. I'm also hoping to be ready to sit the AS in June.
The summary of where we are so far is...
Russia at this time was largely a feudal, agricultural society - a patrimonial society with the Tsar at the top controlling everything. He had control of the military, economy and politics. There was no freedom of speech and the life and death of every Russian was in his hands. The majority of the population were serfs who had little or no rights, and who worked for landowners and paid them taxes.
In 1855, Alexander II came to power and introduced several reforms?
Why did he want to reform agriculture with the Serf Emancipation Act (1861)?
Several reasons:
1. Defeat in the Crimean War: had shown Russia's backwardness when compared to its western opponents. Her troops were under equipped and poorly equipped and were poorly disciplined (a peasant conscript army). Communication and transport infrastructure were also poor and contributed to Russia's defeat. Alexander II believed that this threatened Russia's status as a 'Great Power'
2. Revolution 'From Above': Alexander wanted to try and stimulate the economy while maintaining his own position. He preferred that revolution come 'from above' than 'from below' and believed that strengthening the economy would simultaneously strengthen his autocratic rule.
3. Clamour for Change: Alexander also realised that he could not maintain the level of social control that his father, Nicholas II, had enforced. There was growing debate about what should be done from nobles, those who looked to the west for a solution and those who looked for a 'Russian solution' to the problem
4. Serfdom as an impediment to Change: Alexander believed that serfdom was an impediment to economic development. It was inefficient, gave peasants no incentive to develop new farming methods, restricted the development of industrialisation (by restricting peasant's movement) and ultimately could not feed Russia's growing population.
In brief, Alexander wanted to stimulate the economy and thereby protect both Russia's position as a 'Great Power' and his own autocratic rule.
What Were The Main Reforms?
1. Serfdom: Serfs were released from their landlords, given their homes and land and granted basic rights. They were attached to their village communes (mirs)
2. Military: A large conscript army was replaced by a smaller, better-equipped and better-trained army. Military Schools were also set up.
3. Education: primary schools were established, secondary education opened to commoners, universities were expanded and given more autonomy. Education became free of the Orthodox Church
4. Judiciary: A legal system with equality before the law was introduced along with some limited freedom of speech
5. Zemstva: There were elected representatives at the local level to deal with local issues and bureaucracy (i.e. sanitation, road building etc). These were elected by all levels of the population.
6. Economic Reform: Various measures were also introduced to try and kickstart the economy, such as reforming the Treasury, encouraging foreign investment and liberalising trade policies and tariffs.
Were they successful?
Not really. They were a step in the right direction, but brought with them a series of problems. The major successes of the reforms were:
1. Agriculture: Some peasants grew rich and were able to sell their surplus.
2. Infrastructure: railway construction stimulated growth in the iron, coal and engineering industries - necessary preconditions for industrial growth
3. Legal Reform: was wide-ranging, but ultimately autocracy remained.
The main problems with the reforms were:
1. The reforms did not increase productivity among serfs: in fact it deteriorated. They were also more and more demoralised. They swapped control by the landlords for control by the Mirs and were crippled with paying for their freedom through Redemption Payments (in addition to taxes). Landlords also kept most of the land - particularly the best bits - for themselves. The Mirs were also conservative and meant that the peasants were impeded from innovating and had no access to modern farming techniques or equipment.
2. Political Reform was Limited: Despite some reforms, autocracy remained. Free speech was also largely limited, trade unions and political parties were banned, professional organisations were still placed under surveillance, and dissidents could be banished. Moreover, the majority of the votes and seats on the Zemstva went to landowners and the nobility.
3. Military Reform was Limited: Again, despite the shift from a conscript to a professional army, there were still problems with supply and leadership. The majority of the troops were also still illiterate peasants who could not benefit from the new training.
4. Economic Reform was Limited: The economy was still weak and the tax system was not reformed.
Ultimately, the reforms as-they-were were also short-lived, being curtailed after 1866, when someone tried to assassinate Alexander. Following the attempt on his life, began to listen more and more to reactionaries who attacked his reformist policies and its 'foreign influences'.
How did Alexander React to the 1866 Assassination Attempt?
1. Eradication of 'Western Influences' from Education: Zemstva powers over education were removed and the Church began to control rural schools again. Schools and Universities were forced to follow a traditional curriculum and, in the latter, courses that encouraged critical thinking were forced out (hmmm sounds familiar). Censorship was tightened as were bans on extra-curricular student activities.
3. More Power to Police: Police surveillance - through the Third Section - was increased. Those caught were subject to show trials (until this backfired).
4. Persecution & Russification: A harsher policy was introduced towards ethnic and religious minorities (esp. Jews) and an increased emphasis on Russification prevailed.
Who Were Alexander's Main Opponents At This Time?
1. The Liberal Intelligentsia: wanted Alexander to further his reform policies and for him to turn Russia into a parliamentary state modelled on Western Europe and Enlightenment ideas.
2. The Populists: wanted to transform Russian society by winning the peasants over to socialist ideas by stirring within them a sense of resentment over their exploitation. After the split in 1879, Black Partition wanted used moderate means to try and win a redistribution of the black soil region of Russia to the peasants, while The People's Will used assassination to try and overthrow the Government.
3. Marxists (after 1872): wanted to create a communist society in Russia.
4. Reactionary Nobles and Landlords: wanted to roll back Nicholas' reforms.
How successful were they by 1881?
They were generally unsuccessful, although the People's Will did manage to assassinate Nicholas in 1881. This arguably backfired, though, as his son (Alexander III) was a complete reactionary and sought to further roll back his father's reforms. If any of the opponents achieved success, then, it was perhaps the reactionary nobles and landlords!
1. Russia did not become a parliamentary state and indeed, Alexander III's counter-reforms impacted on those areas of public life where the liberal intelligentsia were based.
2. The Populists found the peasants hostile to their views (they were conservative, superstitious and supported the Tsar). By 1881 the moderate Black Repatriation had been severely weakened by arrests.
3. Marxism had no impact at this time beyond intellectual circles. Marx's ideas could not be applied to a non-Capitalist and non-class society. That said, Marxism would later triumph, but that would be three decades away.
Gold Star!
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